Beer Studies
Home > Resources > Countries or brewing areas > West Africa

Brewery studies in West Africa

Sub saharan Africa

 

Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Niger, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, Ivory Coast, Guinea-Bissau, Sierra Leone, Ghana, Benin, Togo, Guinea.

Special Cameroon-Chad bibliography (infra)

 

  1. Achi OK. 1990, Microbiology of 'obiolor', a Nigerian fermented non-alcoholic beverage, J. App Bacteriol 69, 321:25.
  2. Adandé A. 1953, Le maïs et ses usages dans le Bas-Dahomey, Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Afrique noire (Dakar) XV(1), 220:282.
    • All food and beverage fermented from maize. A complete intermingling between solid and liquid forms. The coastal area of Western Africa, with the coast of Congo, is the oldest part of the world where maize was brought from America by the Portuguese and locally grown by African people since the 15th century. The african legends have made maize a native plant.
  3. Adegoke G.O., Nwaigwe R.N., Oguntimein G.B. 1995, Microbiological and biochemical changes during the production of sekete, a fermented beverage made from maize, Journal of Food Science and Technology 32(6), 516:518.
  4. Agier Michel, Lulle Thierry 1986, Eléments d'anthropologie des lieux de travail: le cas d'une brasserie au Togo, Anthropologie et Société 10(1), 104:143.
  5. Akyeampong Emmanuel 1996, Drink, Power and Cultural Change. A Social History of Alcohol in Ghana, c. 1800 to Recent Times. Social History of Africa.
  6. Akyeampong Emmanuel 2002, Drinking with Friends: Popular Culture, the Working Poor, and Youth Drinking in Independent Ghana. In Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics, D. F. Bryceson (ed.) Portsmouth NH, 215:230.
  7. Arhin Kwame 1994, The Economic Implications of Transformations in Akan Funeral Rites, Journal of the International African Institute 64(3), 307:322.
  8. Bedaux Rogier M. A.1972, Tellem, reconnaissance archéologique d'une culture de l'Ouest africain au Moyen-Age : recherches architectoniques, Journalde la Société des Africanistes 42(2), 103:185.
    • The "Tellem" culture precedes the Dogons in Mali before the 16th century.
  9. Bedaux Rogier M. A., Lange A. G. 1983, Tellem, reconnaissance archéologique d'une culture de l'Ouest africain au Moyen-Age : la poterie, Journaldes Africanistes 53, 5:59.
    • Many types of jars and pots are related to the manufacture and consumption of beer. They belong to the so-called "Tellem culture," 11th-16th centuries (remains in the cliffs of Sanga) in Mali.
  10. Beek Walter van 2011, The Gender of Beer: Beer, Symbolism among Kapsiki/Higi and the Dogon. In Liquid Bread. Beer and Brewing in Cross-Cultural Perspective ed. by Wulf Schiefenhövel & Hellen Macbeth, 147:157.
  11. Beek Walter van 2002, Drinking with Friends: Popular Culture, the Working Poor, and Youth Drinking in Independent Ghana. In Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics, ed. D. F. Bryceson, Portsmouth NH, 215:230.
  12. Belliard François 2001, Préparation de bière de sorgho chez les jóòhé (Burkina Faso), étude ethnolinguistique d'une technique, Journaldes Africanistes 71(2), 49:76.
  13. Beliard François 2011, Brewing Sorghum Beer in Burkina Faso: A study in Food Technology from the Perspective of Anthropological Linguistics. In Liquid Bread. Beer and Brewing in Cross-Cultural Perspective ed. by Wulf Schiefenhövel & Hellen Macbeth, 171:181.
  14. Baroin Catherine, Prêt Pierre-François 1993, Le palmier du Borkou, végétal social total, Journal des Africanistes 63, 5:20.
    • Borku, a depression near Lake Chad : palm wine but no beer, because of a lack of cereal growing.
  15. Chauve Serge s.d. (1985?), Le DOLO. Dossier libre EITARC 2 Montpellier.
  16. Cuoq Joseph M. 1985, Recueil des sources arabes concernant l'Afrique occidentale du VIIIè au XVIè siècle (Bilad al-sudan), Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Paris.
    • Writings of Arab geographers and travelers on Black Africa. Several witnesses to the presence of beer. Single French compilation on that subject, beside Lewick 1974 in English.
  17. Dieterlen Germaine, Calame-Griaule Geneviève 1960, L'alimentation dogon, Cahiers d’Études africaines 3, 46:89.
  18. Dupré G. 1965, Aspects techniques et sociaux de l'agriculture en pays bassari, Cahiers du Centre de recherches anthropologiques, XI° Série, tome 8 fascicule 1-2, 75:159.
    • Pages 130-138: description of the beer brewed for public works and agricultural rituals celebrated with them.
  19. Efiuvwevwere B.J.O., Akona O. 1995, The microbiology of kunun-zaki, a cereal beverage from northern Nigeria, during the fermentation (production) process, World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 11, 491:493.
  20. Ekundayo JA. 1969, The production of pito, a Nigerian fermented beverage, Journal of Food Technology 4, 217:225.
  21. Faparusi S.I. 1970, Sugar changes during the preparation of Burkutu beer, Journal of Science for Food & Agriculture 21, 79:81.
  22. Faparusi S.I., Olofinboba M.O., Ekundayo J.A., 1973, The microbiology of burukutu beer, Zeitschrift für Allgemeine Mikrobiologie 13, 563:568.
  23. Goody Jack 1982, Cooking, Cuisine and Class. A Study in Comparative Sociology. Cambridge University Press.
    • As usual, Goody offers an exciting reading. Recitation of the Black Bagré and brewing of beer. The beer offered in exchange for agricultural work in Africa could be a colonial modern phenomenon, and not a "traditional practice" or even less an ancestral custom.
  24. Goody Jack 1984, Cuisines, cuisne et classes. Trad. de Goody 1982 par J. Bouniort. Centre Georges Pompidou.
  25. Griffon Dany, Hébert Jean-Paul s. d., La bière et le DOLO en Pays Dogon, Agropolis Museum.
  26. Gessain Monique 1977, Support de ferment à bière, Journal des Africanistes 47(1), 140.
    • Drawing of a ferment support for beer made by Bassaris people, and collected at Eyolo in 1975. Object braided with vegetable fiber in the form of a small basket (approx. 10 x 20 cm) filled with gravel laterite. Steeped in the bottom of a beer jar, it absorbs and retains the rich yeast lees. Then dried in the sun, it was enough to plunge it into the next brew to start the fermentation.
  27. Gessain Monique, Lestranges Marie-Thérèse 1987, La bière de sorgho chez les Bassari. In Information sur les Sciences Sociales 26, 633:648.
    • Sorghum beer and brewing technical scheme.
  28. Gessain Monique 1996, Le sorgho chez des Tenda et des Peul au Sénégal oriental. In Cuisines, Reflets des Sociétés, Marie Claire Bataille-Benguigui & Françoise Cousin, 97:108.
    • Sorghum beer, illustrated with a technical scheme of the bassari brewing, taken from Guessain & Lestrange 1987.
  29. Hagaman B. L. 1977, Beer and matriliny : the power of women in a West Africa Society. PhD. Northeastern University Boston.
    • A classic approach to the relationships between the matrilineal organization of women in some African societies and their economic powers through the brewing and local trade of traditional beers.
  30. Hagberg Sten 2006, « Bobo buveurs, Yarse colporteurs ». Parenté à plaisanterie dans le débat public burkinabè, Cahiers d’études africaines 184, 861:881.
  31. Heap, Simon 2002, Living on the Proceeds of a Grog Shop: Liquor Revenue in Nigeria. In Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics, D. F. Bryceson (ed.) Portsmouth NH, 139:160.
  32. Hébert Jean-Paul 2000, La bière en Afrique, Bières et Dolos. In La Bière en Afrique, du Dolo à la Pils, éd. Musée Français de la Brasserie, sp. St Nicolas-de-Port, France.
  33. Hounhouigan D. J., Nout M. J. R., Nago C. M., Houben J. H., Rombouts F.M. 1993, Changes in the Physico-Chemical Properties of Maize During Natural Fermentation of Mawè, Journal of Cereals Science 17(3), 291:300.
  34. Hounhouigan D. J., Nout M. J. R., Nago C. M., Houben J. H., Rombouts F.M. 1994, Microbiological changes in mawè during natural fermentation, World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 10, 410:413.
  35. Hounhouigan Mênouwesso Harold 2007, Evaluation et Amelioration de la Technologie Traditionelle de Production de Kpètè-Kpètè: un ferment utilisé pour la fermentation du tchoukoutou, Thèse Université d'Abomey-Calavi.
  36. Jolly Eric 1995, La bière de mil dans la société Dogon. Thèse de l'université Paris X-Nanterre.
  37. Joly Eric 2000, Liens sociaux et bière de mil chez les Dogons du Mali. In La Bière en Afrique, du Dolo à la Pils, éd. Musée Français de la Brasserie, sp. St Nicolas-de-Port, France.
  38. Jolly Eric 2004, Boire avec esprit. Bière de Mil et Société Dogon. Société d'ethnologie, Nanterre.
  39. Jolly Éric 2004, « Bars et cabarets du pays dogon » Un boire individuel ou communautaire ?, Socio-anthropologie [En ligne], N°15. http://socio-anthropologie.revues.org/index399.html 
  40. Journe B. 1997, Production, vente et consommation de la bière de mil (dolo) à Ouagadougou: aspects économiques, techniques et culturels. Mémoire de Maîtrise de Géographie, Université Paris IV Sorbonne (France).
  41. Karp I. 1980, Beer Drinking and Social Experience in an African Scoiety, In Karp & Brid (eds.) Explorations of African Systems of Thought, Indiana University Press, 83:119.
  42. Kondombo Salam.R. 2005, Improvement of village chicken production in a mixed (chicken-ram) farming system in Burkina Faso,PhD Thesis Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Wageningen University, The Netherlands.
    • Interesting rediscovery of the reuse of brewers grains for the feeding of poultry and sheep !
  43. Kuboye, A. O. 1985. Traditional Fermented foods and Beverages of Nigeria. In Development of Indigenous Fermented Foods and Food Technology in Africa, ed. International Foundation for Science IFS), 224-237. Stockholm / Sweden.
  44. Lewicki Tadeusz, Johnson Marion 1974, West African food in the Middle Ages According to Arabic Sources, Cambridge University Press.
    • Medieval history and written sources about beer in Africa. Single compilation on that subject, beside Cuoq 1985.
  45. Lestranges Marie-Thérèse 1981, La consommation de "bière de mil" à Eyolo, village bassari du Sénégal oriental. In Objets et Mondes 21(3), 107-114.
    • Sorghum beer and brewing technical scheme.
  46. Liberski Danouta 1989, Pour une géographie de la saleté, Journal des Africanistes 59, 39:62.
    • p. 47-49 connect germination / fermentation to the general polarity "in gestation" / "decaying" conceptualized by the Dogons of Mali through their myths and rituals.
  47. Luning Sabine 2002, To Drink or Not to Drink: Beer Brewing, Rituals, and Religious Conversion in Maane, Burkina Faso. In Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics, ed. D. F. Bryceson, 231-248. Portsmouth NH.
  48. Magrin Géraud, Mbayhoudel Koumaro 2002, La bière à l'index? Enjeux et dynamique de la consommation d'alcool au sud du Tchad. In Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le basin du Tchad 2002 E. Garine, O. Langlois, C. Raimond (ed.), 501:527.
  49. Maoura Nanadoum, Mbaiguinam Mbailao, Nguyen Huu Vang, Gaillardin Claude, Pourquie Jacques 2005, Identification and typing of the yeast strains isolated from bili bili, a traditional sorghum beer of Chad, African Journal of Biotechnology 4 (7), 646:656.
  50. McCall Michael 1996, Rural Brewing, Exclusion, and Development Policy-Making, Gender and Development 4(3), 29:38.
  51. Michodjèhoun-Mestres Laetitia, Hounhouigan D. Joseph, Dossou Joseph, Mestres Christian 2005, Physical, chemical and microbiological changes during natural fermentation of "gowé", a sprouted or non sprouted sorghum beverage from West-Africa, African Journal of Biotechnology 4 (6), 487:496.
  52. Nago C. M. 1985, Le Chakpalo. Boisson Fermentée à Base de Maïs produite au Bénin. Etude Technologique et Biochimique". In Development of Indigenous Fermented Foods and Food Technology in Africa, ed. International Foundation for Science (IFS), 238-261. Stockholm / Sweden.
  53. Nanadoum M. 2001, La "bili-bili", bière traditionnelle tchadienne: études technologiques et microbiologiques. Thèse agronomie, Inst. National de Paris-Grignon.
  54. Netting Mc.C. 1965, Beer as a locus of value among the West African Kofyar. American Anthropologist 66(2), 375:384.
    • The Kofyar are farmers of sorghum, millet, and beans, living in the southern Jos Plateau, Northern Nigeria.
  55. N’Guessan Florent K., N’Dri Denis Y., Camara Fatoumata, Djè Marcellin K. 2010, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida tropicalis as starter cultures for the alcoholic fermentation of tchapalo, a traditional sorghum beer, World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 26, 693:699.
  56. Nkanga E. J. 1981, The microbiology of ‘Oyokpo’, a traditionally fermented millet beer in Bendel state of Nigeria, Acta Biotechnologica 1, 41:47.
  57. Nzelibe Humphrey C. 1995, The brewing potential of "Acha" (Digitaria Exius) malt compared with Pearl Millet (Pennisetum Typhoides) malts and sorghum (Sorghum Bicolor) malts, Journal of the Institute of Brewing 101, 345:350.
  58. Orji M.U., Mbata T.I., Aniche G.N., Ahonkhai I. 2003, The use of starter cultures to produce ‘Pito’, a Nigerian fermented alcoholic beverage, World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 19, 733:736.
  59. Pearlstone Zena 1973, Sujang: A Stirrup Spout Vessel from Nigeria, American Antiquity 38(4), 482:486.
  60. Périssé Julien, Adrian Jean, Rerat Alain, Le Berre Simone 1959, Bilan nutritif de la transformation du sorgho en bière : préparation, composition, consommation d'une bière du Togo. Annales de Nutrition et Alimentation, ORSTOM, 13(1) suppl. 4, 1:15.
  61. Perrot Claude-Helène 1990, Semailles et moissons dans la région d'Assinie vers 1700, Journal des Africanistes 60, 9:26.
    • Historical evidence on the coast of Africa (Aby lagoon, south-east of Ivory Coast) : palm wine and millet beer.
  62. Portères Roland 1951, Eleusine coracana Gaertner, céréale des humanités pauvres des pays tropicaux, 6 fig, 3 pl., 2 photos, 1 carte, Bulletin de l'Institut Français d'Afrique noire (Dakar) XIII(1), 1:78.
    • Originating in Ethiopian Africa (Eritrea / Natal), or India (Hindustan), or Sinhalese, the finger millet is transformed into beer when all other cereals (millet, sorghum, fonio, barley, wheat) are missing or cannot be grown. The understanding of the origins of Eleusine has increased since Portères's pioneering work.
  63. Rehfish Farnham 1962, Competitive Beer Drinking among the Mambila, Cahier d'Etudes Africaines 3(1), 51:103. Réd in Constructive Drinking 1987, Mary Douglas (ed), Cambridge University Press, Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l'Homme, 135:145.
  64. Sanni A. I., Oso B. A. 1988, The production of Agadagidi - A Nigerian fermented beverage, Die Nahrung 32, 319:326.
  65. Sanni A.I., Onilude A.A., Fadahunsi I.F., Afolabi R.O. 1999, Microbial deterioration of traditional alcoholic beverages in Nigeria, Food Research International 32(4), 163:167.
  66. Saul M. 1981, Beer, Sorghum and Women: production for the market in rural Upper Volta, Africa 51(3), 746:764.
  67. Sawadogo-Lingani H., Lei V., Diawara B., Nielsen D.S., Møller P.L., Traore A.S., Jakobsen M. 2007, The biodiversity of predominant lactic acid bacteria in dolo and pito wort for the production of sorghum beer, Journal of Applied Microbiology 103, 765:777.
  68. Sefa-Dedeh S., Asante, S. 1988, Traditional alcoholic beverage from cereal in Ghana: processing of pito and burukutu in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. KIFP Food Syst Res Rep No. 1, 39 pp.
  69. Sefa-Dedeh S. 1991, Cereal-based traditional beverages from Ghana: Process and product characteristics of pito. In Traditional African Foods Quality and Nutrition, ed. International Foundation for Science (IFS), 1-8. Stockholm / Sweden.
  70. Sefa-Dedeh S., Sanni A.I., G. Tetteh,Sakyi-Dawson E. 1999, Yeasts in the traditional brewing of pito in Ghana, World Journal of Microbiology & Biotechnology 15, 593:597.
  71. Treillon R., Gattegno I. 1984, Cannettes contre calebasse ou une comparaison économique des bières industrielles et des bières traditionnelles au Burkina-Faso. In Nourrir les villes en Afrique Saharienne, ed. ALTERSIAL – ORSTOM - CERED.
  72. Ugochukwu Françoise 2001, Le boire en pays igbo : le vin parle pour eux, Journaldes Africanistes 71(2), 33:47.
  73. van der Drift, Roy 2002, Democracy's Heady Brew: Cashew Wine and the Authority of the Elders among the Balanta in Guinea-Bissau. In Alcohol in Africa. Mixing Business, Pleasure and Politics, ed. D. F. Bryceson, 179-196. Portsmouth NH.
  74. Yao A.K., Kadio G., Coulybaly A., Agbo G.Z. 1995, Production du ‘Tchapalo’ à partir du sorgho en Côte d’Ivoire. In Processing and industrial utilization of sorghum and related cereals in Africa. Proceeding of the OUA/ STRCSAFGRAD regional symposiumed. Menyonga, J.M. Bezuneh, T. Nwasike, C.C. Sedogo P.M., Tenkouano A., Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso,  55:60.  

   

Specific bibliography for Cameroon and Chad.

  1. Barreteau Daniel, Delneuf Michèle (1990), La Céramique Traditionnelle Giziga et Mofu (Nord-Cameroun). Etude Comparée des Techniques, des Formes et du Vocabulaire. In Barreteau Daniel (ed.), Tourneux H. (ed.), Relations interethniques et culture matérielle dans le bassin du lac Tchad. ORSTOM. horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/…/31550.pdf
  2. Chevassus-Agnes S., Favier J. C., Joseph A. (1979) - Technologie traditionnelle, valeur nutritive des "bières" de sorgho. Cahier de Nutrition et de Diététique XI (2) 89-104. horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_5/…/14545.pdf
    • Fundamental study of the brewing methods of the Mbaya, Laki, Lamé, Moundang, Tupuri, Giziga and Sara ethnic groups with identification of 3 different techniques. Notice the quotation marks around beer. A few decades ago, people hardly dared to say that these African, Asian or Amerindian fermented beverages were real "beers"!
  3. Clapperton (1829) - Journal of a second expedition into the interior of Africa, from the Bight of Benin toSoccatoo … To which is added, the journal of Richard Lander from Kano to the sea-coast babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc2.ark:/13960/t41r72g9w
  4. Connah Graham (2019) - The So Pots of Central Africa: Memories of the Past. BAR Publishing, Oxford, 2019.
  5. Créarc’hPaul (1937-39) – Se nourrir au Sahel : l’alimentation au Tchad. L’Harmattan 1993.
  6. Créarc’hPaul (1941) - Aliments et alimentation des indigènes du Moyen Tchad, Marseille.
  7. Dicko M. H., Searle-van Leeuwen M. J. F., Beldman G., Ouedraogo O. G., Hilhorst R., Traoré A. S. (1999) - Purification and characterization of β-amylase from Curculigo pilosa. Applied Microbiology Biotechnology 52: 802-805. researchgate.net/publication/Purification&characterization_of_b-amylase_from_Curculigo
  8. Diduk Susan (1993) - European Alcohol, History, and the State in Cameroon, African Studies Review 36, 1-42.  jstor.org/stable/525506
    • Study of the impact of colonial fermented and distilled beverages on the governance of Cameroon.
  9. Eguchi P. (1975) - Beer drinking and festivals among the Hide. Kyoto University African Studies 9:69-90 – 1975. beer-studies.com/documents-pdf/EGUCHI_Paul_Kazuhisa...
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Hide (Tur) people.
  10. Fourneau Jacques (1938) - Une tribu païenne du Nord-Cameroun. Les Guissiga (Moutouroua), contribution ethnologique, Journal de la Société des Africanistes persee.fr/doc/jafr_0037-9168
  11. Froelich Jean-Claude (1964) - Les problèmes posés par les refoulés montagnards de culture paléonigritique. Cahiers d'études africaines, vol. 4, n° 15.  persee.fr/doc/cea_0008-0055_1964_num_4_15_3015
  12. Gardi R., Gross S. (1985) - Brew Beer in Cameroon, African Arts 18-4.  jstor.org/stable/3336260
    • Photographic study and text by Gardi.
  13. Garine Éric (1995)- Le mil et la bière. Le système agraire des Duupa du massif de Poli, Nord-Cameroun. Thèse université Paris X. researchgate.net/publication/262143478
    • Key thesis on the social economy of beer among the Duupa people (Central Cameroon).
  14. Garine Éric (1996) – Une bonne sauce de mauvaises herbes. Note sur les repas des Duupa du massif de Poli, Nord-Cameroun, in Cuisines, Reflets des Sociétés, Ed. Sepia.
  15. Garine Eric (2001) – An Ethnographic Account of the Many Roles of Millet Beer inthe Culture of Duupa Agriculturists, (Poli Mountains) Northern Cameroon. In Drinking. Anthropological Approaches, (ed) Igor & Valérie de Garine,191-204. dokumen.pub/drinking-anthropological-approaches-1nbsped-157181809x-978157181
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Duupa people (Central Cameroon).
  16. Garine Eric (2011) – Beer, Ritual and Conviviality in Northern Cameroon. In Liquid Bread. Beer and Brewing in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Wulf Schiefenhövel & HelenMacbeth (ed).
    • Overview of the traditional red sorghum or white millet beers brewed by the Masa, Muzey, Tupuri, Kera, Koma and Duupa ethnic groups of North Cameroon. Brewing techniques, nutritional value, ways of consumption and sociability, myths.
  17. Garine Éric (2016) – Bière de céréales, viande de brousse et viande d’élevage : quelles règles de partage chez les cultivateurs Duupa du Nord du Cameroun ? in Sharing Food (61-73) researchgate.net/publication/305984948
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Duupa people (Central Cameroon).
  18. Garine Igor de (1964) – Les Massa du Cameroun : vie économique et sociale. PUF dokumen.pub/drinking-anthropological-approaches-1nbsped-157181809x-9781571818096
  19. Garine Igor de (1995) - Food and the status quest in five African cultures, in Food and the Status Quest, Wiessner P. &  Schiefenhövel W. (eds), 193:218.
    • Bières traditionnelles des ethnies Masa, Muzey, Tupuri, Kera, Koma et Duupa du Nord Cameroun.
  20. Garine Igor de (2001) – Drinking in Northern Cameroon among the Masa and Musey. In Drinking. Anthropological Approaches, (ed) Igor and Valérie de Garine, 51-65. dokumen.pub/drinking-anthropological-approaches-1nbsped-157181809x-978157181
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Masa and Musey ethnic groups (banks of the Logone river between Chad and Cameroon).
  21. Garine Igor de (2005) - Nourriture de brousse chez les Muzey et les Masa du Nord-Cameroun, in Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le bassin du lac Tchad. books.openedition.org/irdeditions/1626
  22. Gauthier Gabriel 2000, Chez les Fali du Cameroun: dora an djo bolo, viens boire la bière. In Ferments en folie, Fondation Alimentarium N° 29 Nestlé, 45:43.
    • 3 sortes de bière de sorgho rouge ou de mil chez les Fali vers 1960, dont une est venue à une époque récente des bords du lac Tchad avec les émigrés de cette région septentrionale. Cet épisode montre que la brasserie africaine a non seulement une histoire, mais que ses techniques n'ont jamais été figées.
  23. Genest Serge (2003) - Revue de 'The Way of the Beer. Ritual Re-Enactment of History amongthe Mafa ...' by G. Müller-Kosack - Africa: Journal of the International African Institute, Vol. 73, No. 4, 642- 643. jstor.org/stable/3556793
  24. Guingnet Michel (1968) – Les Mada. Contribution à l’étude des populations du Nord-Cameroun. Bulletin de l’IFAN XXX, série H n° 3. 1968, 1062-1146.
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Mada (Eastern Madara Mountains).
  25. Hamadou (2002) - Provision of Food Supplies to the Royal Palaces in the Northern Cameroon during the XIX and XX Centuries. MEGA-TCHAD 2002.
  26. Holl Augustin F. C. (2006) - Pathways to Complexity. The Rise and Demise of a Chadic Polity. researchgate.net/publication/268195973
  27. Holl Augustin F. C. (2022) - Emergent Complexity and Political Economy of the Houlouf Polity in North Central Africa (1900 BCE-1800 CE), International Journal of Modern Anthropology 2/7. ajol.info/index.php/ijma/article/view/226259/213526
  28. Jaouen René (1995) - L'eucharistie du mil : langage d'un peuple, expression de la foi, Paris, Karthala. numilog.com/LIVRES/ISBN/9782307518082.Livre
    • Are sorghum and sorghum beer a local form of the Eucharistic bread and wine?
  29. Koppert Georgius, Rikong Adié Honorine, Gwangwa'aSarah, Sajo Nana Estelle, Matze Mirjam, Pasquet Patrick, Froment Alain, Garine Igor de (1996) - La consommation alimentaire dans différentes zones écologiques et économiques du Cameroun, in Bien manger et bien vivre. Anthropologie alimentaire et développement en Afrique tropicale, ORSTOM 1996, 237-254. documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:010010004
  30. Koulandi J. (1999) - Le bili-bili et la libération de la femme tupuri, in Karang, Edition et Média. yumpu.com/fr/document/view/16704994/kaarang-www-user
    • Brewing and selling bil-bil beer provides women with self-reliance and financial resources.
  31. Kubo Ryousuke (2015) - Indigenous alcoholic beverage production in rural villages of Tanzania and Cameroon. repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/200472
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer in rural Cameroon.
  32. Langlois Olivier (2005), Aliments solides, aliments liquides, in Raimond, Christine (dir.) ; Garine, Éric(dir.) ; et Langlois, Olivier (dir.) Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le bassin du lac Tchad- IRD 2005 : 349-375. books.openedition.org/irdeditions/1658
  33. Lyumugabe François, Gros Jacques, Nzungize John, Bajyana Emmanuel, Thonart Philippe (2012), Characteristics of African traditional beers brewed with sorghum malt: a review. BASE 16(4). popups.uliege.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=9217
    • Technical study of traditional African sorghum beers.
  34. MacEachern Scott (1993) - Selling the iron for their shackles: Wandala-montagnard interactions in Northern Cameroon, Journal of African History 34:247-270. researchgate.net/publication/229088417
  35. MacEachern Scott (2012) - The prehistory and early history of the northern Mandara Mountains and surrounding plains. researchgate.net/publication/229088435
  36. MacEachern Scott, David Nicholas (2013) - Monumental architecture in mountain landscapes: The diy-geδ-bay sites of northern Cameroon. Azania: ArchaeologicalResearch in Africa. 48. researchgate.net/publication/236160994
  37. MacEachern Scott (2015) - What was the Wandala state, and who are the Wandala? in Ethnic Ambiguity and the African Past, (ed) Richard & MacDonald. researchgate.net/publication/276206585
  38. Magrin Géraud, Mbayhoudel Koumaro (2005)- La bière à l’index ? Enjeux et dynamiques de la consommation d’alcool au sud du Tchad, in Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le bassin du lac Tchad, Christine Raimond, ÉricGarine, Olivier Langlois (ed.) 2005. books.openedition.org 1677
  39. Maoura N. et al. (2005)- Identification and typing of the yeast strains isolated from bili bili, a traditional sorghum beer of Chad. African J. Biotechnology 4, 646-656.researchgate.net/publication/228495442
  40. Maoura N., Mbaiguinam M.,Gaillardin C., Pourquie J. (2006) - Suivi technique, analytique et microbiologique de la “bili bili”, bière traditionnelle tchadienne. Afrique Science, 2, 69-82. researchgate.net 279642263
    • Technical study of traditional bil-bil beers made from sorghum malt.
  41. Martin Jean Yves (1970) - Les Matakam du Cameroun. Essai sur la dynamique d’une société pré-industrielle. Paris, ORSTOM. documentation.ird.fr/hor/fdi:03053
  42. Masseyeff R., Cambon A., Bergeret B.(1959) - Une enquête alimentaire et nutritionnelle chez les Toupouris de Golompoui. Institut de Recherches Scientifiques du Cameroun, Yaoundé. horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers13-11/10322.pdf
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer amongst the Tupuri ethnic group (North Cameroon).
  43. Müller-Kosack Gerhard (1988) – Sakrale Töpfe der Mafa (Nord-Kamerun) und ihre Kulträumlichen Dimensionen, in Paideuma: Mitteilungen zur Kulturkunde Bd.34. jstor.org/stable/23076471
    • Study of the sacred beer pots of the Mafa (devotion to ancestors, sorghum pot, twin pots, beer pots for other rituals).
  44. Müller-Kosack Gerhard (1991) – Zur Siedlungsstruktur der Mafa (Nord-Kamerun), in Paideuma: Mitteilungenzur Kulturkunde Bd.37. jstor.org/stable/40341627
  45. Müller-Kosack Gerhard (2003) - The Way of the Beer. Ritual Re-Enactment of History among the Mafa. mandaras.info/PublicationsForDownloading.html
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer of the Mafa groups (central Mandara Mountains, North Cameroon).
  46. Müller-Kosack Gerhard (2021) – Azaghvana. A fragmentary history of the Dghwede of the Mandara Mountains, Mandara Publishing.
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer of the Gwoza hills ethnic groups (North West Mandara Mountains, Nigeria).
  47. Netting Robert McC. (1964)- Beer as a locus of value among the West African Kofyar. American Anthropologist 66: 375-384. doi.org/10.1525/aa.1964.66.2.02a00120
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer of the Kofyar, an ethnic group of the Jos plateau (Northern Nigeria).
  48. Otélé A. (1959) - Les boissons fermentées de l'Oubangui-Chari, Liaison (Brazzaville) n° 67, 34-42.
  49. Oyeleke Oyus A., Morton I. D.,Bender a. E. (1985), The use of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) in improving apopular Nigerian weaning food. British Journal of Nutrition 54, 343-347. cambridge.org/core/journals/british-journal-of-nutrition/article/use-of-cowpeas
  50. Perrois Louis, Dieu Michel (1990) - Culture matérielle chez les Koma-Gimbe des monts Alantika (Nord Cameroun) : les gens de la bière de mil. 3ème col. MEGA-TCHAD, ORSTOM. horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/pleins_textes_6/colloques2/31552
  51. Roulon-Doko Paulette (2001) - Cuisine et nourriture chez les Gbaya de Centrafrique, L’Harmattan « Etudes africaines ».
  52. Schler Lynn (2002) - Looking through a Glass of Beer. Alcohol in the Cultural Spaces of Colonial Douala (1910-1945). International Journal of African Historical Studies 35 2-3.
  53. Seignobos Christian (1976) - La bière de mil dans le Nord-Cameroun : un phénomène de mini-économie. In Recherches sur l’approvisionnement des villes et la croissance urbaine dans les pays tropicaux. Mémoire du Ceget, CNRS : 1-39.
    • Study on the sale of beer in the markets around Maroua by women brewers (North Cameroon).
  54. Seignobos Christian (2005) - Trente ans de bière de mil à Maroua, in Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le bassin du lac Tchad, Christine Raimond, Éric Garine et Olivier Langlois (dir.), IRD Editions 2005, 527-561. Full text and drawings on beer-studies.   
    • Study of the sale and consumption of beer in the concessions of the city of Maroua (North Cameroon), the "saré à bilb-bil". A thorough examination of the diversity of beer consumption and its economic channels in perpetual metamorphosis in the north of Cameroon. Written by a specialist.
  55. Tourneux Henri (2005) - Les préparations culinaires chez les Peuls du Diamaré (Cameroun), in Raimond Christine (dir.), Garine Éric (dir.), Langlois Olivier (dir.), Ressources vivrières et choixalimentaires dans le bassin du lac Tchad - IRD 2005 : 289-318. books.openedition.org/irdeditions/1654
  56. Tubiana Marie-José (1964) – Survivances préislamiques en pays Zaghawa. CNRS. Institut d’ethnologie.
  57. Tubiana Marie-José, Tubiana Joseph(1973) - Un peuple noir aux confins du Tchad et du Soudan : les Beria aujourd'hui. Cahiers d'outre-mer 103. persee.fr/doc/caoum_0373-5834_1973_num_26_103_2663
  58. Urvoy Yves (1949) – Histoire de l’empire du Bornou, Mémoires del’Institut français d’Afrique Noire, IFAN n°7. gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k841256/f2.item
  59. Van Beek Walter (1978) - Bierbrouwers in de bergen; de Kapsiki en Higi van Noord-Kameroen en Noord-Oost Nigeria. scholarlypublications.universiteitleiden.nl/handle/1887
    • Fundamental study of the sale of beer in the markets around Maroua by women brewers (North Cameroon).
  60. Van Beek Walter (1981) - Les Kapsiki. in Contribution de la recherche ethnologique à l'histoire des civilisations du Cameroun. Tardits, C. (ed.). (Colloques internationaux du Centre National de la RechercheScientifique ; 551), 113-119. research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/les-kapsiki
  61. Van Beek Walter (1982) - Les savoirs kapsiki. in Essais pour une anthropologie de l'éducation camerounaise. R. Santerre, C.Mercier-Tremblay, National Centre of Education in Yaoundé. research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/les-savoirs-kapsiki
  62. Van Beek Walter (2002) - Kapsiki beer dynamics - in Ressources vivrières et choix alimentaires dans le bassindu lac Tchad. IRD books.openedition.org 1675
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer amongst the Kapsiki ethnic group (Western Mandara Mountains, Cameroon/Nigeria).
  63. Van Beek Walter (2011) – The Gender of Beer: Beer Symbolism among the Kapsiki and the Dogon. In Liquid Bread. Beer and Brewing in Cross-Cultural Perspective. Wulf Schiefenhövel & Helen Macbeth(eds.), 147-158.
    • Study of the types of beer and their roles according to gender among the Kapsiki ethnic group (Western Mandara Mountains, Cameroon/Nigeria).
  64. Vaughan James Herbert (1977)- Mafakur: a limbic institution of the Margi (Nigeria). In Suzanne Miersand, Igor Kopytoff (eds.), Slavery in Africa: Historical and AnthropologicalPerspectives (85-104).
  65. Vaughan James Herbert (2000)- The Margi of the Mandaras: A Society on the Verge. scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/handle/2022/21947
    • Fundamental study on the social economy of beer among the Marghi living in the north-western foothills of the Mandara Mountains (Nigeria).
  66. Vincent Jeanne-Françoise (1991) - Princes montagnards du Nord-Cameroun. Les Mofu-Diamare et le pouvoir politique. Paris,L’Harmattan.
  67. Wahauwouélé Hermann Coulibaly, Kouadio Florent N’guessan,Ibourahema Coulibaly, Koffi Marcellin Djè, Philippe Thonart(2014), Les levures et les bactéries lactiques impliquées dans les bières traditionnelles à base de sorgho produites en Afrique sub saharienne (synthèse bibliographique), vol. 18. popups.uliege.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=11063

 

The study below provides an extensive bibliography on beer in Cameroon, maps and illustrations.

⇩ Ch. BERGER, African beer history around Lake Chad - 2022.pdf ⇩

 

*  *  *  *        4 galleries of historical valued photographs     *  *  *  *

  1. Album of the Moll Mission 1905-1907, Congo, Oubangui-Chari, Chad, Cameroon. 201 photos. Recorded in 1924. gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b7702243n
  2. Three albums of 184 photos of Georges Bruel's missions. Mission of Upper Chari (Oubangui-Chari and Chad) 1900-1901  gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b7702185n
  3. Album of 632 photographs of a trip undertaken by André Gide and Marc Allégret, Congo to Cameroon in 1925-26 pop.culture.gouv.fr/search/mosaic?auteur=["Allégret%2CMarc (1900-1973)"]&base….
  4. Images taken by Toussaint Mercuri who accompanied Ferdinand de Béhagle in 1897 (Congo => Lake Chad) flickr.com/photos/148507146@N07/albums/72157666029772228

 

Click an area for other regional bibliographies.
Global brewing areas in the worldEurope Central Asia Koreas, China, Japan Near-East Southeastern Asia Western Africa Tropical & Austral Africa Eastern Africa India, Himalaya, Tibet Northern America Central America Andean America Amazonia, Guyanas, Caribbean
22/05/2020  Christian Berger